Background: Tramadol has a high potential for misuse resulting in cognitive impairment.
Zingiber officinale, however, possesses neuroprotective qualities. Objective: Microscopically
assessed hippocampal CA1 and CA3 following Z. officinale and tramadol treatment.
Materials and Methods: Two milliliters/kilogram of distilled water was given to Group 1,
Groups 2–5 were administered 50 mg/kg of tramadol while Group 3 was also administered 12.5 mg/
kg of naltrexone, and Groups 4 and 5 were also administered 500, and 1000 mg/kg ethanol extract of
Z. officinale (EEZO), respectively, orally for 21 days. The rats were euthanized and their brains were
collected, fixed in 10% formal saline, and processed routinely using crystal fast violet (CFV) stain for
the demonstration of Nissl substance, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) for the demonstration of
astrocytes, and Hematoxylin and Eosin for general histoarchitecture and estimation of cell number and
volume using physical dissector and Cavalieri estimator, respectively. Results: CFV stain revealed
alterations in regions of CA1 and CA3 of the hippocampus presenting as indistinct staining intensity
and peripheral Nissl substance accumulation in the tramadol‑treated group. GFAP revealed numerous
reactive astrocyte processes. The area of reactive astrocytes remarkably increased (P < 0.05) and
the intensity of the Nissl substance remarkably reduced in the tramadol-exposed group. When
compared to the control, the tramadol-exposed group’s hippocampal volume considerably (P < 0.05)
decreased (coefficient of error [CE] =0.050). The tramadol treatment group (CE = 0.090) relative to
the control group (CE = 0.060) showed a striking decrease (P < 0.05) in the number of pyramidal
cells in the CA3 region. The tramadol treatment group (CE = 0.090) compared to the control
group (CE = 0.060) showed a striking decrease (P < 0.05) in the number of pyramidal cells in the
CA3 region. Tramadol toxicity was attenuated in the groups treated with EEZO in a dose-dependent
manner. Conclusion: Z. officinale possesses a potential neuroprotective effect against tramadol‑induced
neurotoxicity.

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) plays a role in host cell defense. TNF‑alpha (TNF‑α), secreted from
macrophage has an important role in proinflammatory response mechanism. TNF‑α levels increase in
autoimmune, systemic inflammatory diseases, especially rheumatological diseases. Therefore, TNF‑α
inhibitors are alternant in the treatment of many inflammatory diseases. TNF‑α inhibitors are not
the first choice of clinicians due to their important adverse effects, despite the fact that successful
results in diseases treatments. Treatment with TNF‑α inhibitors causes different adverse effects
including many bacterial, viral and fungal infectious diseases, lung diseases, demyelinating diseases,
and malignancies. One of the most important adverse effect is tuberculosis (TB) by Mycobacterium
tuberculosis bacillus. TB occurs through reactivation in Latent TB infection. Thus, TB screening
tests appliedbefore TNF‑α inhibitors treatment have an importance. In this review, TNF‑α inhibitors
and their important adverse effect TB flaming were discussed, and also genetic background features
of these molecules have been explained.

In this review, the biological structure of garlic, its active ingredients, especially allicin and its way
of antimicrobial effects on cells evaluated and also the toxic possibility of allicin on diverse cells was
investigated. Various academic papers have been found in reliable literature. It is stated that garlic
includes lots of phytoconstituents with activities against cells. The toxic action of allicin on different
cell lines such as bacteria kinds such as Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis,
Streptococcus pneumoniae) and Gram-negative bacteria (Klebsiella pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori,
Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa) for all that fungi like Candida albicans and parasites,
virus, glioma and human neuroblastoma cell lines and also oral tongue squamous cell carcinoma,
cancer cell lines which are characterized as malignant (leukemia, colon, gastric, and breast cell
lines) cancer. It has been revealed that, on those cells, allicin has also been demonstrated toxicity
mechanisms on cells like canceling deed of nitric oxide synthase, the peroxidation of lipids, nuclear
factor, kappa B, arranging cell period, modulating the activity of redox precision proteins and
influence cellular signaling.

The study of behavioral genetics holds great promise for revealing the genetic and environmental
factors that impact both typical and abnormal behavior. The ideas and techniques that have been
used to identifying the constituent parts of complex human characteristics serve as the foundation
for behavioral-genetic procedures. To analyze the genetic component of these complex features, new
tools are now accessible. We can start investigating how certain genes interact with environmental
variables in development as they are discovered. Important factors to take into account include how
we interpret these results, how we pose fresh questions, how we celebrate the information, and how
we make use of or abuse this knowledge. These problems are prevalent in all human research fields,
but they are particularly evident in human behavioral genetics. In this article, we review the results of
studies and theories, explore their implications for our knowledge of adult personality development,
and highlight outstanding issues that require more investigation.

Dear Editor,
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a calamitous condition that
causes temporary or permanent changes in its function
resulting either from trauma or nontrauma.[1] The abrupt
nature of injury infers a radical change in various
domains on both persons with SCI (PwSCI) and their
family caregivers (FCGs).[2] The unanticipated nature of
this condition leaves the FCGs to adopt new roles and
responsibilities that they were not aware of it before.
The FCG’s psychosocial and vocational outcomes
are negatively impacted by taking on this additional
caregiver responsibility. This caregiving role puts them
in a phase where they often neglect their needs and
health.