Muscle dysmorphia (MD) is a subtype of body dysmorphic disorder characterized by an obsessive
belief that one’s body is insufficiently muscular. This review provides a comprehensive examination of
the addiction cycle in MD, particularly in the context of anabolic steroid and performance‑enhancing
drug (PED) use. Utilizing a systematic search across databases such as PubMed, PsycINFO, Scopus,
and Web of Science, the review draws on peer‑reviewed literature published in the past two decades
to uncover the roles of hormonal and neural alterations in perpetuating this cycle. Inclusion and
exclusion criteria were meticulously applied to ensure a robust analysis of relevant studies. The
article details the interaction between exogenous hormonal supplementation from steroids and PEDs
and brain receptors, which significantly disrupt neurotransmitter systems and affect mood, cognition,
and stress responses. The synthesis of data reveals that hormonal imbalances due to substance abuse
lead to profound changes in brain plasticity and function, instigating psychiatric disorders and
complicating withdrawal and treatment. Therapeutic strategies are critically assessed, with emphasis
on the success of cognitive‑behavioral therapy, the role of pharmacological management, and the
promise of emerging treatments targeting neuroendocrine disruptions. The review suggests an
integrated, holistic treatment model that includes hormonal therapy and neurological considerations,
underscoring the importance of personalized and sustained interventions. In conclusion, the intricate
cycle of addiction in MD, fueled by the hormonal effects of steroids and PEDs on the brain, calls for
an integrated approach to treatment. Future research should focus on the neuroendocrine impact of
these substances to refine therapeutic strategies for MD.

Breastfeeding is the key element of infant feeding and has played a vital role in promoting infant
health throughout history. It provides all the necessary nutrients for infants to grow and develop.
The World Health Organization (WHO) recommends initiating breastfeeding right after birth and
continuing with exclusive breastfeeding for the first 6 months, followed by complementary feeding
up to 24 months of age. The WHO has also set targets to increase exclusive breastfeeding rates by
2025. As scientific research has advanced, the benefits of breastfeeding for infant health have become
increasingly apparent, not only for metabolic diseases but also for cognitive health. As a result,
researchers have started examining whether breastfeeding has any neurological or psychological
effects on lactating mothers. In this review, we examined current research on the neurological and
psychological effects of breastfeeding on women.

The human mind receives, perceives, and processes visual and auditory input daily from the everyday
world of art and culture as an esthetic neural experience involving several regions of the cerebrum.
It is important to comprehend how this process of neuroesthetics works and how it affects each
individual’s emotions and behavior. This article will incorporate various clinical scanning techniques
and methods to examine the anatomical cerebral structures where the effects of external neuroesthetic
stimuli can be correlated with its resultant neural cognitive response. The effects of neuroesthetic
stimuli on the clinical improvement in patients experiencing depression, cognitive decline, and
other forms of behavioral manifestations will be reviewed. The results of these studies (including
international examples, along with various comparative analyses) demonstrate the beneficial effects
of art on the pleasure centers of the brain and its consequent positive effects on patients’ behavior and
emotions, thus exemplifying the short‑ and long‑term importance of incorporation of neuroesthetics
in not only the clinical setting but also in our global society.

Recent years have seen a surge in psychiatric diseases, which has resulted in considerable disease
distress and considerably decreased living conditions. Many considerable synthetic medications have
been used to treat these illnesses throughout the years, but they have been found to have limited
effects and substantial recurrence risks in many individuals. Mental illnesses such as depression
and anxiety are persistently on the rise around the world, posing serious challenges to the affected
person’s and their family members’ personal lives. There is mounting evidence that suggests the gut–
brain axis (GBA) contributes to the genesis and development of psychiatric diseases. This review
focuses on contemporary dietary therapies such as Mediterranean diets and dietary supplements
and emphasizes nutrition’s critical role in psychiatric care through the GBA. Several research have
indicated that dietary quality affects mental health because it controls metabolic processes, has
anti‑inflammatory and antiapoptotic characteristics, and promotes neurogenesis and synaptogenesis.
This study demonstrates many dietary components, their relationships to depression, and how they
work. The use of dietary recommendations to support mental health appears to be a novel, affordable,
useful, nonpharmacological intervention for people with mental problems.

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) plays a role in host cell defense. TNF‑alpha (TNF‑α), secreted from
macrophage has an important role in proinflammatory response mechanism. TNF‑α levels increase in
autoimmune, systemic inflammatory diseases, especially rheumatological diseases. Therefore, TNF‑α
inhibitors are alternant in the treatment of many inflammatory diseases. TNF‑α inhibitors are not
the first choice of clinicians due to their important adverse effects, despite the fact that successful
results in diseases treatments. Treatment with TNF‑α inhibitors causes different adverse effects
including many bacterial, viral and fungal infectious diseases, lung diseases, demyelinating diseases,
and malignancies. One of the most important adverse effect is tuberculosis (TB) by Mycobacterium
tuberculosis bacillus. TB occurs through reactivation in Latent TB infection. Thus, TB screening
tests appliedbefore TNF‑α inhibitors treatment have an importance. In this review, TNF‑α inhibitors
and their important adverse effect TB flaming were discussed, and also genetic background features
of these molecules have been explained.

In this review, the biological structure of garlic, its active ingredients, especially allicin and its way
of antimicrobial effects on cells evaluated and also the toxic possibility of allicin on diverse cells was
investigated. Various academic papers have been found in reliable literature. It is stated that garlic
includes lots of phytoconstituents with activities against cells. The toxic action of allicin on different
cell lines such as bacteria kinds such as Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis,
Streptococcus pneumoniae) and Gram-negative bacteria (Klebsiella pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori,
Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa) for all that fungi like Candida albicans and parasites,
virus, glioma and human neuroblastoma cell lines and also oral tongue squamous cell carcinoma,
cancer cell lines which are characterized as malignant (leukemia, colon, gastric, and breast cell
lines) cancer. It has been revealed that, on those cells, allicin has also been demonstrated toxicity
mechanisms on cells like canceling deed of nitric oxide synthase, the peroxidation of lipids, nuclear
factor, kappa B, arranging cell period, modulating the activity of redox precision proteins and
influence cellular signaling.

The study of behavioral genetics holds great promise for revealing the genetic and environmental
factors that impact both typical and abnormal behavior. The ideas and techniques that have been
used to identifying the constituent parts of complex human characteristics serve as the foundation
for behavioral-genetic procedures. To analyze the genetic component of these complex features, new
tools are now accessible. We can start investigating how certain genes interact with environmental
variables in development as they are discovered. Important factors to take into account include how
we interpret these results, how we pose fresh questions, how we celebrate the information, and how
we make use of or abuse this knowledge. These problems are prevalent in all human research fields,
but they are particularly evident in human behavioral genetics. In this article, we review the results of
studies and theories, explore their implications for our knowledge of adult personality development,
and highlight outstanding issues that require more investigation.

Şizofrenide glutamat hipotezi N-metil-D-aspartat (NMDA) reseptör antagonistlerinin insanlarda ve deney hayvanlarda şizofreni semptomları oluşturmasına dayanır. Anormal glutamaterjik iletinin şizofreninin bilişsel, pozitif ve negative semptomları ile ilişkisine işaret eden birçok kanıt vardır ve glutamaterjik sistem şizofreni tedavisinde yeni ilaçların geliştirilmesi için güncel ve önemli bir odaktır. Poliaminler doğada ve canlı organizmalarda yaygın olarak bulunan putresin, spermidin, spermin ve agmatin gibi birden fazla amin içeren alifatik moleküllerdir. Poliaminler ve bunların biyosentetik enzimleri vücutta merkezi sinir sistemi de (MSS) dâhil olmak üzere yaygın olarak bulunur. Poliaminler hücre büyümesinin modülasyonu ve hücre membran işlevlerinde önemli bir role sahiptir. Şizofreninin sinir hücresi membranlarındaki genel bir anomalite ile ilişkili olduğu hipotezi ileri sürülmüştür. Bir poliamin olan agmatin sıçan hipokampal nöronlarında glutamaterjik NMDA reseptörlerini seçici bir şekilde bloke eder. Poliaminlerle şizofreni hastalığının etyopatogenezi arasında ilişkiye işaret eden çeşitli kanıtlar da mevcuttur. Bu gözden geçirme yazısında biyolojik aktif bir nörotransmitter olan agmatin ile NMDA reseptörleri arasındaki etkileşme üzerinden şizofreninin anlaşılmasına yönelik yeni bir yaklaşım ileri sürülmektedir.

Spermidin, spermin ve agmatini içeren poliaminler beyne özgü pek çok fonksiyonu çalıştırmaktadır. Poliamin dolaşım mekanizmaları, beyinde nöromodülatör ve nörotransmitterler gibi sinaptik olarak salgılanabilen bu organik katyonların yeniden dağıtımından sorumlu olabilmektedir. Bu nedenle, poliaminlerin lokalizasyon ve fonksiyon incelemesine ek olarak poliamin yolak enzimlerinin lokalizasyonu, özellikle psikolojik bozukluklar ve nörolojik dejeneratif hastalıklarda poliaminlerin hücre tanımlaması ve bölgeye özgü rolleriyle alakalı hatırı sayılır bilgiler sağlamaktadır. Belirli nöronal devreler fizyolojik ve farmakolojik araştırmalara bağlıdır. Bu çalışma kapsamında spermedin sentezi ve agmatinin belirli sinaptik ifadesini nispeten gösteren serebral korteksi ve medial habenulayı elektrofizyolojik olarak incelenmiştir. Her iki alanda da ilgili poliaminler açık bir şekilde elektriksel aktiviteyi etkilemekte ve medial habenula majör depresif rahatsızlığın etiyolojisinde yer alabilmektedir. Bu bağlamda, paraventriküler talamik nükleusu gibi beynin diğer bölümlerindeki agmatinin ifadesiyle depresyon ilişkisinin olasılığı tartışılacaktır.

Kan-enjeksiyon- yaralanma fobisi (BII) bir bireyin direkt ya da dolaylı olarak kana, enjeksiyonlara ya da yara görmeye maruz kaldığı ve bu durumlardan kaçınma eğiliminin olduğu aşırı korku durumudur. BII fobisi erkeklere göre kadınlarda daha yaygındır. Bu fobi bayılmanın olduğu hemen hemen tek spesifik fobi ve tek kaygı bozukluğudur. Bayılma, BII fobili bireylere daha fazla endişe verse de aslında bayılma bu bireyler bir çeşit hayatta kalma mekanizmasına ihtiyaç duydukları zamanlarda da oluşabilir. Cinsiyetler arasındaki semptom farklılıklarını içeren bu makalede soylardaki BII fobisinin insanlarda nasıl oluşmuş olabileceğini tartışacağız. Cinsiyetler arasındaki beyin farklılıklarına bağlı olan bayılmayı özel olarak inceleyen çalışmalar yoktur. Fakat kadın ve erkek beyinlerindeki farklılıkları inceleyen iyi yapılmış çalışmalar mevcuttur. Bunu düşünerek cinsiyetler arasındaki problemlere bağlı olan beyin ve davranış farklılıklarına sebep olan gen ifade seviyesinde kadın ve erkek beyinlerindeki farklılıkları gösteren bazı yeni buluşları da yeniden inceleyeceğiz. Beyinin davranışsal problemlerini anlamak için çok yönlü bir perspektif zorunlu bir ihtiyaçtır.